Welcome to Rhode Island, the Ocean state! Whether you’re a resident or soon to become a resident of Rhode Island, and want to get an RI driver’s license, we’re here to help. By the time you finish this article, you will know how what types of driver’s licenses are offered in Rhode Island and how to apply for them. Let’s get your RI driver’s license!
Types of Rhode Island Driver’s Licenses
You must apply for your driver’s license through the Rhode Island Division of Motor Vehicles (RI MVD) in Rhode Island. The RI DMV offers the following driver’s licenses:
- Permit (teenage driver’s license)
- Standard driver’s license
- Commercial driver’s license (CDL)
- Motorcycle license
- Chauffeur license
- School bus license
Rhode Island Driver’s License Requirements
Before you rush to head to your local RI DMV, you need to know if you’re required to obtain an RI driver’s license.
You MUST have a Rhode Island driver’s license if any of the following apply:
- You are a current RI resident who’s never had a license
- You are a new resident of RI and want to apply for an RI driver’s license or transfer your out-of-state driver’s license
- You intend on operating a non-commercial vehicle
- You have a legal presence in RI and the U.S. (you are NOT required to obtain an RI driver’s license if you have a diplomatic driver’s license that has been issued by the U.S. Department of State.)
You are NOT required to have a Rhode Island driver’s license if any of the following apply:
- You are at least 18 years old and visiting RI with a valid out-of-state driver’s license
- You are an active military member or dependent who is stationed in Rhode Island, as long as you have a valid out-of-state driver’s license, and you have NOT established residency in RI
- You operate farm vehicles off public highways
- You ONLY operate registered off-highway vehicles and snowmobiles WITHOUT accessing public roads (other than to cross the roads)
Applying for a Rhode Island Driver’s License
Whether you’re a new or current resident of Rhode Island and don’t have an RI driver’s license, you’ll need to obtain one before you can operate a motor vehicle in Rhode Island.
New Residents of Rhode Island
As a new resident of Rhode Island, you have 30 days to obtain an RI driver’s license that is issued by the RI DMV. You must visit your local RI DMV in person to apply for your new RI driver’s license.
If you have a valid driver’s license from a different state or an out-of-state license that’s expired for no more than 5 years, you will need to present the following at your local RI DMV branch:
- A completed Application for License, Identification Card, and Permits (Form Ll-1)
- Your valid out-of-state driver’s license or driving record from issuing state if the license is not available
- Proof of your RI address
- Proof of your Social Security number
- Proof of identity
- Payment for the $44.50 driver’s license fee
You are required to apply for an RI instruction permit before obtaining an RI driver’s license if the following applies:
- Your out-of-state driver’s license has expired more than 5 years
- You’ve never been issued a driver’s license anywhere
OR
- You are transferring a driver’s license that is issued by a different country
How to Get a Driver’s License in Rhode Island
If you’re younger than 18 years old, you’ll need to apply for a new teenage driver’s license. If you are over 18 years of age and have never been issued a Rhode Island driver’s license or your license has expired more than 5 years, you must apply for an RI instruction permit.
Before you will be eligible to receive your initial RI driver’s license, you need to obtain your RI instruction permit. To get your RI instruction permit, you must visit the RI DMV branch in Cranston with the following:
- A completed Application for License, Identification Card, and Permits (Form Ll-1)
- Documents that prove the following:
- Identity
- Social Security Number (SSN)
- Rhode Island residency
- Payment for the $7.50 fee
While you’re at the DMV office, you will be required to pass the computerized knowledge exam. After you receive your RI instruction permit, you must pass a road test before you can receive your RI driver’s license.
Rhode Island License and Testing Fees
You must pay the following fees:
- Road test: $27.50
- Driver’s license: $39.50
If you have a Rhode Island driver’s license that has expired for at least 5 years, you will be required to apply for an instruction permit. You will not be able to renew your expired license in this situation.
Driver’s License Fees in Rhode Island
The following are the driver’s license fees in Rhode Island:
- Instruction permit: $7.50
- Driver’s license: $39.50
- Out-of-state transfer: $44.50
- Road test: $27.50
Acceptable Identification Documents in Rhode Island
When you’re applying for a driver’s license in Rhode Island, you must present documents that prove your identity, Rhode Island residency, and your true full name.
Acceptable identification documents you can use include the following:
- Birth certificate
- Permanent resident card
- Passport
- Armed forces ID cards
- Foreign passport with a valid I-94 (the expiration date of the I-94 must be more than 2 months from the date you visit the office)
Examples of true full-name verification documents can include the following:
- Name change documents that contain your legal name before and after you changed your name
- Adoption documents that contain your legal name as a result of the adoption
- Marriage certificate
- Certificate of registration document that verifies the formation of a domestic partnership
- A dissolution of marriage document that contains your legal name as a result of the court order
Examples of acceptable Rhode Island residency documents can include the following:
- Resident utility bills (this includes cell phone bills)
- Insurance documents
- Rhode Island vehicle or vessel title registration
- A record of a financial institution (bank statement)
Obtaining a Rhode Island Driver’s License Under the Age of 18
As a teenager applying for their first driver’s license, you need to complete the Rhode Island Division of Motor Vehicles driver requirements. You must take a series of steps to be eligible to receive an RI driver’s license, including education and driving practice. Completing these steps will help you become a knowledgeable, safe driver, and help you pass the RI DMV driving test.
New Teenage Residents of Rhode Island
As a new teenage resident of Rhode Island, if you have an out-of-state driver’s license, you are required to transfer this license within 30 days of your parents or legal guardian establishing residency in RI. To do so, you must visit your local RI DMV branch and do the following:
- Submit a completed Application for a License, Identification Card, and Permits (Form Ll-1)
- Submit your out-of-state driver’s license or your out-of-state driving record
- Prove your identity and RI residency
- Pay the $39.50 fee
If you are transferring your out-of-state provisional driver’s license, you may be required to pass the RI DMV written knowledge exam and road test.
Rhode Island Teenage Driver Licensing Program and Restrictions
The RI teenage driver requirements apply to you if you’re a new driver who is younger than 18 years of age.
You are required to complete the following stages:
- Complete a Driver’s Education (Driver’s Ed) course
- Limited instruction permit (allows you to operate a motor vehicle with an adult who is at least 21 years of age and has been licensed for at least 5 years.)
- A limited provisional license that allows you to drive:
- Supervised at any time
- Unsupervised between the hours of 5 AM and 1 AM
- With no more than 1 passenger who is younger than 21 years of age, unless he/she is an immediate family member (this is a first-year restriction)
- Full, unrestricted Rhode Island driver’s license
Rhode Island Learner’s Permit
Once you turn 16 years of age and have completed a Rhode Island Driver’s Ed education program, you apply for your RI learner’s permit.
To apply for your Rhode Island learner’s permit, you must visit an RI DMV branch with your parent or legal guardian and do the following:
- Submit a completed Application for a License, Identification Card, and Permits (Form Ll-1)
- Provide the following:
- Birth certificate
- Social Security card
- Proof of your RI residency
- Provide your Driver’s Ed completion certificate
- Pass the RI DMV written test
- Pass the DMV vision exam
- Pay the $12.50 learner’s permit fee
Driving Restrictions and Behind-the-Wheel Practice
With your Rhode Island learner’s permit, you are ONLY allowed to drive while you are accompanied by an adult who is at least 21 years old and has been licensed for at least 5 years. Before moving on to the next steps of the RI DMV teenage licensing program, you will need to do the following:
- Hold your instruction permit for at least 6 months
- Complete 50 hours of supervised driving with 10 of these hours completed at night
- Schedule your RI DMV road test by contacting the RI DMV
Provisional Driver’s License
You will be eligible for an RI provisional driver’s license once you have held your learner’s permit for at least 6 months and completed 50 hours of driving practice, including 10 hours that are driven at night.
To apply for your provisional RI driver’s license, you need to visit your local RI DMV with your parent, legal guardian, or other licensed adult and do the following:
- Pass your RI DMV driving test
- Surrender your learner’s permit
- Pay the $27.50 road test fee (this fee is usually paid when you schedule your road test)
- Pay the $24.50 provisional license fee
You will be eligible for your unrestricted RI driver’s license once you are at least 17 years old and have had your provisional driver’s license for at least 1 year.
Provisional License Driving Restrictions
You can drive supervised at any time with your Rhode Island provisional driver’s license. Your licensed supervisor must be at least 21 years old and have held their driver’s license for at least 5 years. You are allowed to drive unsupervised between the hours of 5 AM and 1 AM if you are traveling to and from work. You are NOT allowed to drive with more than 1 passenger who is younger than 21 years old unless he/she is an immediate family member.
Full Unrestricted Rhode Island Driver’s License
You are eligible to upgrade to an RI unrestricted driver’s license if you:
- Are at least 17 years old
- Have held your RI provisional driver’s license for at least 1 year
- Have had NO traffic violations in the past 6 months
When you visit your local RI DMV branch, be prepared to surrender your provisional driver’s license and pay the new driver’s license fee of $39.50.
The Rhode Island Written Exam and Road Test
In most cases, you are required to complete the Rhode Island written exam and road test to receive your RI driver’s license. Here’s what you need to know.
The Rhode Island Written Exam
The RI written exam has a total of 40 questions, 28 of which you must answer correctly to pass with a minimum passing score of 70%. The minimum age to apply to complete this exam is 16.
The Rhode Island Road Test
The RI road test is used to determine how well you can operate a motor vehicle while adhering to the traffic laws and road signs in Rhode Island. You will be tested on your ability to start the car, reverse, park, and more.
Non-Commercial and Special Driver’s Licenses in Rhode Island
Depending on the type of vehicle you want to drive and the type of driving you want to do, you may be required to apply for a special driver’s license or endorsement in Rhode Island. Like all other licenses, you must apply for a special RI driver’s license at a Rhode Island DMV branch.
Getting a Chauffeur’s License in Rhode Island
In Rhode Island, a chauffeur is someone who operates a private or commercial vehicle to a designated location for payment. If this sounds like something you want to do, you must have a valid chauffeur’s license. You will have an “R” restriction on your standard Rhode Island driver’s license.
To receive a chauffeur’s license, you must do/be the following:
- Be a resident of Rhode Island (however, citizenship is NOT required)
- Have a minimum amount of previous driving experience
- Provide references
- Agree to a criminal background check
- Complete a CPR course
A chauffeur’s license allows you to operate any vehicle, such as a taxi or van, with a capacity of less than 14 passengers. You must also complete the RI written, road, and vision tests.
Driving a School Bus in Rhode Island
If you’re considering becoming a school bus driver in Rhode Island, you are required by law to obtain a Class C CDL with passenger, air brake, and school bus endorsements. RI school bus driver certificates must also be renewed on an annual basis.
In addition to completing all applicable driver’s licensing requirements, you must:
- Have attained a motor vehicle operator’s license for at least 3 years and be at least 21 years old
- Have had NO felony convictions and/or committed crimes of moral turpitude
- Complete 10 hours of classroom instruction
- Complete a vision and physical exam performed by a licensed physician
- Agree to an annual randomly administered drug test performed by your employer
If you have questions or concerns regarding Rhode Island’s special driver’s license certifications, call (401) 462-4368 or:
Division of Motor Vehicles
600 New London Ave.
Cranston, RI 02920
Operating Sport Vehicles in Rhode Island
Most sport and off-road vehicles do NOT require a special driver’s license or endorsement in Rhode Island. However, there may be a minimum operating age or a safety class requirement. Certain vehicles may require you to obtain a motorcycle license or endorsement. To operate an ATV, you must:
- Have a safety certificate if you’re under 16 years of age
- Have a valid driver’s license if you’re between 16 and 18 years of age to cross a highway
- Not cross highways if you’re under 16 years old
Married, Divorced, or Name Change?
If you changed your name due to marriage, divorce, or any other reason, you will be required to provide specific documents that prove your name was legally changed. The following documents are accepted to prove your legal name change:
- A marriage certificate
- A name change document that contains the legal name of both before and after the name change
- Adoption documents that contain the legal names as a result of the adoption
- A certificate, declaration, or registration document that verifies the formation of a domestic partnership
- A dissolution of marriage/domestic partnership document that contains the legal name as a result of the court action
Does the REAL ID Act Impact Residents of Rhode Island?
Maybe you have and maybe you haven’t heard of the REAL ID Act. Each state has a REAL ID Act, and in Rhode Island, you are NOT required to have one, but if you travel frequently, you may want to consider obtaining one.
What is a REAL ID?
On December 3, 2018, the RI DMV began offering REAL ID-compliant licenses and identification cards. These identification credentials can be used to board domestic flights or when entering certain federal facilities or buildings.
The RI DMV will offer REAL IDs in compliance with the federal REAL ID Act of 2005, which establishes security standards for state-issued driver’s licenses and ID cards.
Are You Required to Obtain a Rhode Island REAL ID?
Good question. No, you are NOT required to obtain a REAL ID. If you have a valid passport, you can use your passport as proof of identification instead of a REAL ID. A REAL ID can be used to board domestic air flights and to enter secure federal buildings after stricter federal identification requirements are initiated on May 7, 2025.
When and Where Can I Get a REAL ID?
If you choose to get a Rhode Island REAL ID, this transaction must be completed at an RI DMV branch. If you’re a member of AAA, you can also obtain a REAL ID at any of the association’s RI branch offices found here. There is no additional fee for getting a REAL ID if you apply for one during your license or ID renewal period. An RI REAL ID will cost $27.50 outside of your renewal period.
What Do I Need to Get a REAL ID in Rhode Island?
To receive a REAL ID, you need to have the following documents:
- 1 document that proves your identity (certified copy of your birth certificate that was filed with a State Office of Vital Statistics or equivalent agency in your state of birth. You will also be required to submit proof of your legal name change, if applicable, such as a marriage license.
- Proof of your Social Security number (you must list your SSN on your application or have a letter that is issued by the Social Security Administration stating you are not eligible to receive an SSN.
- 2 proof of Rhode Island residency documents (utility bills, such as water, sewer, cable, or cell phone) – these documents must have your name and the address on them.
Be advised that you are NOT required to have a REAL ID or driver’s license to perform any of the following actions:
- Drive
- Vote
- Visit a hospital or receive life-saving services
- Enter a federal facility that does NOT require an ID (such as a post office)
- Apply for or receive federal benefits (Social Security Administration (SSA), Veteran’s Affairs, etc.)
Applying for a Commercial Driver’s License in Rhode Island
Have you considered becoming a truck driver? If so, you’ll need to apply for a commercial driver’s license (CDL) through the Rhode Island DMV. CDL regulations are set by the RI DMV and the Federal Motor Carrier Safety Administration (FMCSA).
Important Federal Training Requirements Update
Per the new federal entry-level driver training requirements effective February 7, 2022, the Rhode Island DMV mandates new CDL applicants complete an entry-level driver training course through an authorized provider.
You must complete this training before applying for your first commercial driver’s license, upgrading your existing CDL class, or applying for a HAZMAT, school bus, or passenger endorsement.
Who Can Apply for a Rhode Island CDL?
To be eligible to apply for a Rhode Island CDL, you must:
- Be at least:
- 18 years of age to drive intrastate (ONLY within Rhode Island)
- 21 years of age to drive interstate (across state lines)
- Have held a standard Class D driver’s license for at least 2 years before applying
- Provide acceptable documentation that proves the following:
- Lawful presence in the United States
- Rhode Island residency
- Social Security number
Rhode Island Commercial Learner’s Permit
Before you will be eligible to receive your RI CDL, you first need to obtain your commercial learner’s permit (CLP). You can ONLY apply for your CLP at the Cranston, Rhode Island DMV branch.
When you’re ready, call the Cranston office at (401) 462-4368 to schedule your CLP appointment. You will need to do the following at your CLP appointment:
- Submit a completed Commercial Driver’s License Application (CDL-1) – This will include your driver history affidavit for the last 10 years.
- Provide the following:
- Social Security card
- Rhode Island driver’s license
- Documentation that proves your legal presence and RI residency
- Self-certification form and medical card/certificate
- Pass all written exams, including those for any endorsements you may be applying for
- Pay the appropriate fees for your exam(s) and CLP
If you don’t pass your written exam on the first try. No worries. You must wait at least 5 business days before you can reapply with the RI DMV to retake the test(s). After you pass the required written CDL exams, you will receive your CLP. Congratulations!
Commercial Learner’s Permit Restrictions
Before you can get behind the wheel of your big rig, there are restrictions you need to know about. With your CLP:
- You may ONLY drive with a licensed supervisor who attains the same type of CDL you’re applying for
- You can ONLY operate commercial vehicles that correspond to the class of CDL you’re applying for
- Your CLP is valid for 90 days and can be renewed ONCE
According to the FMCSA regulations, you are required to attain your CLP for at least 14 days before you can apply to take the RI DMV behind-the-wheel CDL exam. You should also contact the RI DMV to confirm the number of days you are required to wait before applying for your CDL exam.
Getting Your Rhode Island Commercial Driver’s License
Once you’ve practiced, and you’re comfortable operating your commercial vehicle, you’re eligible to take the RI DMV CDL road skills test. Don’t panic! Remember to take your time and complete every action that is asked of you.
All behind-the-wheel exams are given at the Community College of Rhode Island (CCRI). Call the CCRI at (401) 462-2122 to schedule your road skills test appointment. Be advised that you are required to bring a vehicle to complete your test and your sponsor (licensed supervisor) the road skills test!
When you arrive to take your test, make sure you have the following documents:
- Valid original registration and proof of insurance for the vehicle you’re testing in
- Your standard Class D Rhode Island driver’s license
- Commercial Learner’s Permit
- Your medical card or medical certificate
- Payment for the road testing fee(s)
Your CDL road skills exam will consist of the following tests in the following order:
- Pre-trip vehicle inspection – this is the step where the instructor will identify and evaluate the safe function of internal and external vehicle parts
- Basic vehicle control – during this part of the exam, low-speed drills will be performed to evaluate your reversing, turning, and maneuvering abilities
- On-road exam – you will operate your vehicle on public roads
Any applicant who fails one or more of the skills tests can NOT continue to the next step in the RI CDL process. Passing grades on previous tests will remain valid until your CLP expires. After you’ve completed the CDL road skills test, you’ll receive your Rhode Island CDL. You did it! Congratulations!
Rhode Island CDL Fees
The fees that are associated with applying for a Rhode Island CDL include a $1.55 technology fee and are as follows:
- CDL application: $12.50
- Written exams: $10 each
- Commercial learner’s Permit (CLP): $72.50 (updated/duplicate permit: $22.50)
- Road test: Contact the CCRI
The following are acceptable forms of payment:
- Money order
- Cash
- Personal or blank check
- Credit card
CDL Medical Requirements
If you’ve self-certified as a non-excepted driver, you must be seen by a physician on the National Registry of Certified Medical Examiners. (click here to learn more). The medical examiner will complete the following documents, and you can submit them to the RI DMV when you apply for your CLP:
- Medical Examiner’s Certificate (Form MCSA-5876)
- Medical Examination Report Form (Form MCSA-5875)
Rhode Island law requires you to provide your medical documentation to the RI DMV and apply for your CLP within 15 days of receiving the completed reports above.
Rhode Island CDL Military Testing Waivers
If you operated a commercial vehicle in the military, you may be eligible to waive the CDL road skills test. To be eligible to waive the CDL tests, you must:
- Have a current Rhode Island driver’s license
- Be currently employed in a military position driving commercial vehicles or were employed in a similar position within 1 year of submitting your application
- Have at least 1 year of experience driving a military commercial vehicle
After you’ve determined that you’re eligible to apply for the military waiver, complete the Application for Military Skills Test Waiver (Form REV 2020), and take the completed form to the Cranston, Rhode Island DMV. Keep in mind that you will still be required to pass the RI CDL written exams to receive your Rhode Island CDL.
Federal Self-Certification Requirements
You must self-certify the type of vehicle you’ll be operating with your RI CDL. You can self-certify one of the following driving categories:
- Non-excepted interstate
- Excepted interstate
- Non-excepted intrastate
- Excepted intrastate
Applying for a Rhode Island Motorcycle License
Rhode Island’s size makes hopping on your motorcycle and enjoying the ride a must. To enjoy the scenic views on your motorcycle, you’ll need a motorcycle license.
New Residents of Rhode Island
Welcome to Rhode Island! You have 30 days after you establish residency in RI to transfer your motorcycle license or motorcycle endorsement. To transfer your motorcycle license or motorcycle endorsement, you need to visit the Cranston, RI DMV branch and:
- Surrender your out-of-state license
- Complete the Application for License, Identification Card, and Permit (Form Ll-1)
- Provide proof of the following:
- Rhode Island residency
- Social Security number
- Pass the following tests IF your out-of-state motorcycle license or endorsement has expired more than 5 years:
- The written knowledge test for a motorcycle license
- Motorcycle road skills test
- Pay the $27.50 RI motorcycle license fee
After you complete the above-listed steps, the RI DMV will issue your RI driver’s license with a motorcycle endorsement, which is valid for no more than 2 years. Your motorcycle endorsement will expire on your birthday.
How to Get a Rhode Island Motorcycle License
To be eligible to obtain a motorcycle license from the RI DMV, you must:
- Be at least 16 years old
- Hold either:
- A provisional license or standard driver’s license IF you’re between 16 and 18 years of age; OR
- A standard driver’s license IF you’re at least 18 years of age
- Complete a motorcycle education course
- Apply for and attain a Rhode Island motorcycle permit
Once you complete the above-listed steps, you will be eligible to apply for your full RI motorcycle license.
Motorcycle Education in Rhode Island
Your initial step to obtaining your RI motorcycle endorsement is enrolling in a motorcycle education course. The RI DMV works with the CCRI to provide all motorcycle endorsement applicants with the necessary training.
The CCRI’s motorcycle education program incorporates the curriculum established by the nationally recognized Motorcycle Safety Foundation (MSF). The MSF Basic Rider Course will teach you the following essential skills:
- Choosing the most protective riding gear
- Finding the safest route for riding
- Making smooth stops and turns
- Handling emergencies
Be advised that the RI DMV ONLY accepts certificates of motorcycle education course completion from the CCRI. To learn more about the required motorcycle education in Rhode Island or to enroll in a motorcycle safety course, you can visit the CCRI’s rider education program outline found here, or call CCRI at (401) 825-1214.
Rhode Island Motorcycle Permits
To receive your RI motorcycle permit, you must be at least 16 years of age and meet all other eligibility requirements listed above. When you’re ready, head to your local RI DMV branch and provide the following:
- Current and valid provisional or standard driver’s license
- Motorcycle safety course completion certificate
- Completed Application for License, Identification Card, and Permit (Form Ll-1)
- Payment for the $27.50 motorcycle permit fee
Once you complete the above-listed steps, you will receive your RI motorcycle permit! Your RI motorcycle permit will be valid for 18 months. You must practice riding with your permit for at least 30 days before applying for your official motorcycle endorsement.
Rhode Island Motorcycle Permit Restrictions
While riding with your RI motorcycle permit, you must keep specific restrictions in mind. The RI DMV prohibits motorcycle permit holders from the following:
- Using limited-access highways
- Riding without the supervision of someone who:
- Holds a motorcycle license
- Is at least 18 years of age
- Carrying passengers
Getting Your Rhode Island Motorcycle License
Once you’ve had your RI motorcycle permit for at least 30 days without incident, you will be eligible to visit any RI DMV branch and provide the following:
- Motorcycle permit
- Valid provisional or full driver’s license
- Completed Application for License, Identification Card, and Permit (Form Ll-1)
- Payment for your $27.50 RI motorcycle license fee
The RI DMV will now issue your Rhode Island motorcycle license. Your motorcycle endorsement will expire on the same day as your standard RI driver’s license.
Rhode Island Motorcycle License Fees
The fees that are required by the RI DMV to receive your RI motorcycle endorsement are as follows:
- Motorcycle permit: $27.50
- Motorcycle license: $27.50
Rhode Island DMV Locations
You did it! Congratulations. Now we’ll share different Rhode Island DMV locations to get you on your way.
Rhode Island DMV (Cranston Branch)
600 New London Ave.
Cranston, RI 02920
(401) 462-4368
Monday – Friday (8:30 AM – 3:15 PM)
Saturday and Sunday (Closed)
Rhode Island DMV – AAA Woonsocket Branch
2000 Diamond Hill
Woonsocket, RI 02895
(401) 356- 4031
Monday – Friday (8:30 AM – 4 PM)
Saturday and Sunday (Closed)
Rhode Island DMV – AAA Cumberland Branch
2000 Menon Rd.
Cumberland, RI 02864
(401) 333-9500
Monday – Friday (9 AM – 5 PM)
Saturday (9 AM – 1 PM)
Sunday (Closed)
Rhode Island DMV – AAA Narragansett Branch
14 Woodruff Ave.
Ste. 15
Narragansett, RI 02882
(401) 789-3000
Monday – Friday (9 AM – 5 PM)
Saturday (9 AM – 1 PM)
Sunday (Closed)